Flood-associated disease outbreaks and transmission in Southeast Asia - Introduction 9
Authors: Boonfei Tan 1
Source: Frontiers
Photo/Image Source: Unsplash
2.2 Pathogen reservoirs in human settings
Pathogen reservoirs in the environment and animal populations play a critical role in sustaining transmission between flood events (Figure 1). Among flood-related infectious agents, leptospirosis, caused by Leptospira spp., is the most commonly reported zoonotic disease worldwide. Leptospira comprises a diverse group of species and serovars, many of clinical relevance, and has been recently reviewed by Rajapakse et al. (2025) and Davignon et al. (2023). A comprehensive account of Leptospira serovars, case definitions, risk factors, epidemiological trends, and management strategies, specifically within the SEA context, has been recently reviewed by ASEAN Biodiaspora Virtual Centre (2024). More recent focused reviews of regional surveillance have also been published for individual AMS, including Malaysia (Ahmad Zamzuri et al., 2023; Azman et al., 2025; Philip and Ahmed, 2023; Lea et al., 2025), Thailand (Sawangpol et al., 2025) and Vietnam (Mai et al., 2022). Leptospira is endemic across SEA, with a wide range of animal hosts, causing isolated infections detected across all AMS between 2017 and 2023 (
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