Flood-associated disease outbreaks and transmission in Southeast Asia - Introduction 15
Authors: Boonfei Tan 1
Source: Frontiers
Photo/Image Source: Unsplash
aquatic environments and sediments during non-flood periods, especially when protected by organic matters (Liu et al., 2018; Tiwari et al., 2019; Eiler et al., 2007). The presence of these pathogens usually indicates the incidence of fecal contamination (Karkey et al., 2016; Oktaria et al., 2025). Viral agents also pose significant flood-related risks including waterborne viruses such as Hepatitis A and E, norovirus, and rotavirus, which are linked to outbreaks through contaminated food (Dewanti-Hariyadi, 2024), drinking and recreational waters (Mora et al., 2022). Wastewater, a major source of contamination during floods, can harbor a wide spectrum of clinically significant viruses such as enteroviruses, poliovirus, and SARS-CoV-2; many of which are now key targets of wastewater surveillance in several AMS (Pang et al., 2025). The presence of viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater has been flagged as a potential public health risk during flooding events in urban settings (Han and He, 2021), although infectivity has not been conclusively demonstrated (Giacobbo et al., 2021). These findings underscore concerns of possible viral transmission through exposure to contaminated floodwaters.
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